MODUL BAHASA INGGRIS UNTUK GURU SD
(PSD 225)

Materi 5
Principles of Teaching Grammar

Disusun Oleh
Prayogo Hadi Sulistio, M.Pd

UNIVERSITAS ESA UNGGUL
2018

Principles of Teaching Grammar

A.	Introduction

This module becomes a part of English for Primary Teacher Subject in Primary Teacher Education Department. As the fifth topic, principles of Teaching Grammar. It can give deep explanation about about how to teach grammar with various technique. 
This module discusses various information related teaching grammar for young learners. It explains The deductive approach – rule driven learning, The inductive approach – the rule-discovery path, Concordance. Then, the module also discusses Functional-notional Approach, Functional Categories of Language, Functional grammar, teaching Grammar through texts, Teaching Grammar through stories, Teaching grammar through songs and rhymes, and Some rules for teaching grammar. At the end, there is a recap to summarize the characteristics of young learners.
This module can be used as reference for the students who would like to learn about teaching grammar for young learners. Then, students may practice to teach grammar basen on the class needs and situation.  

B.	Basic Competencies

Understanding various technique in teaching grammar for young learners 

C.	Kemampuan Akhir yang Diharapkan

1.	The students will be able to explain principles of teaching grammar for young learners
2.	The students will be able to identify the needs of teaching grammar for young learners
3.	The students will be able to practice to teach grammar for young learners

D.	Learning Activities 1
Principles of Teaching Grammar 
1.	Uraian dan contoh 
What is grammar
According to Longman Dictionary of contemporary English grammar is:
“The rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences, or the study or use of these rules.” (Longman Dictionary of contemporary English, 2001, p. 619)
The question is, if it is important to study grammar, if we need to know grammatical rules if we want to speak any language. The answer for this question is “No, we do not have to study grammar”. People around the world speak their first language without studying grammatical rules. Small children begin to speak without being aware of grammar. But if people want to use foreign language, grammar is necessary in a way of learning the language more quickly and efficiently. If people know grammatical rules and structures, they are able to understand things themselves. Grammar is essential language skill and it is important for learning foreign language.
According to Jim Scrivener, “grammar is not just a dry list of facts and rules. It is in our heads and it is a living resource that gives us the ability to communicate our ideas and feelings and to understand what other people say or write to us.” (Scrivener, J., 2003)

Why should we teach grammar?
There are many arguments for putting grammar in the foreground in second language teaching. Here are seven of them:
1) The sentence-machine argument
Part of the process of language learning must be what is sometimes called item-learning — that is the memorisation of individual items such as words and phrases. However, there is a limit to the number of items a person can both retain and retrieve. Even travellers' phrase books have limited usefulness — good for a three-week holiday, but there comes a point where we need to learn some patterns or rules to enable us to generate new sentences. That is to say, grammar. Grammar, after all, is a description of the regularities in a language, and knowledge of these regularities provides the learner with the means to generate a potentially enormous number of original sentences. The number of possible new sentences is constrained only by the vocabulary at the learner's command and his or her creativity. Grammar is a kind of 'sentence-making machine'. It follows that the teaching of grammar offers the learner the means for potentially limitless linguistic creativity.
2) The fine-tuning argument
The purpose of grammar seems to be to allow for greater subtlety of meaning than a merely lexical system can cater for. While it is possible to get a lot of communicative mileage out of simply stringing words and phrases together, there comes a point where 'Me Tarzan, you Jane'-type language fails to deliver, both in terms of intelligibility and in terms of appropriacy. This is particularly the case for written language, which generally needs to be more explicit than spoken language. For example, the following errors are likely to confuse the reader:
Last Monday night I was boring in my house.
After speaking a lot time with him I thought that him attracted me.
We took a wrong plane and when I saw it was very later because the plane took up.
Five years ago I would want to go to India but in that time anybody of my friends didn't want to go.
The teaching of grammar, it is argued, serves as a corrective against the kind of ambiguity represented in these examples.
3) The fossilisation argument
It is possible for highly motivated learners with a particular aptitude for languages to achieve amazing levels of proficiency without any formal study. But more often 'pick it up as you go along' learners reach a language plateau beyond which it is very difficult to progress. To put it technically, their linguistic competence fossilises. Research suggests that learners who receive no instruction seem to be at risk of fossilising sooner than those who do receive instruction.
4) The advance-organiser argument
Grammar instruction might also have a delayed effect. The researcher Richard Schmidt kept a diary of his experience learning Portuguese in Brazil. Initially he had enrolled in formal language classes where there was a heavy emphasis on grammar. When he subsequently left these classes to travel in Brazil his Portuguese made good progress, a fact he attributed to the use he was making of it. However, as he interacted naturally with Brazilians he was aware that certain features of the talk — certain grammatical items — seemed to catch his attention. He noticed them. It so happened that these items were also items he had studied in his classes. What's more, being more noticeable, these items seemed to stick. Schmidt concluded that noticing is a prerequisite for acquisition. The grammar teaching he had received previously, while insufficient in itself to turn him into a fluent Portuguese speaker, had primed him to notice what might otherwise have gone unnoticed, and hence had indirectly
influenced his learning. It had acted as a kind of advance organiser for his later acquisition of the language.
5) The discrete item argument
Language seen from 'outside', can seem to be a gigantic, shapeless mass, presenting an insuperable challenge for the learner. Because grammar consists of an apparently finite set of rules, it can help to reduce the apparent enormity of the language learning task for both teachers and students. By tidying language up and organising it into neat categories (sometimes called discrete items), grammarians make language digestible. (A discrete item is any unit of the grammar system that is sufficiently narrowly defined to form the focus of a lesson or an exercise: e.g. the present continuous, the definite article, possessive pronouns).
6) The rule-of-law argument
It follows from the discrete-item argument that, since grammar is a system of learnable rules, it lends itself to a view of teaching and learning known as transmission. A transmission view sees the role of education as the transfer of a body of knowledge (typically in the form of facts and rules) from those that have the knowledge to those that do not. Such a view is typically associated with the kind of institutionalised learning where rules, order, and discipline are
highly valued. The need for rules, order and discipline is particularly acute in large classes of unruly and unmotivated teenagers - a situation that many teachers of English are confronted with daily. In this sort of situation grammar offers the teacher a structured system that can be taught and tested in methodical steps.

7) The learner expectations argument
Regardless of the theoretical and ideological arguments for or against grammar teaching, many learners come to language classes with fairly fixed expectations as to what they will do there. These expectations may derive from previous classroom experience of language learning. They may also derive from experience of classrooms in general where (traditionally, at least) teaching is of the transmission kind mentioned above. On the other hand, their expectations that teaching will be grammar-focused may stem from frustration experienced at trying to pick up a second language in a non-classroom setting, such as through self-study, or through immersion in the target language culture. Such students may have enrolled in language classes specifically to ensure that the learning experience is made more efficient and systematic. The teacher who ignores this expectation by encouraging learners simply to experience language is likely to frustrate and alienate them.

PRESENTING GRAMMAR
APPROACHES
The deductive approach – rule driven learning
A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied. The grammar rule is presented and the learner engages with it through the study and manipulation of examples.
Advantages of a deductive approach:
· It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time-saving. Many rules — especially rules of form — can be more simply and quickly explained than elicited from examples. This will allow more time for practice and application.
· It respects the intelligence and maturity of many - especially adult -students, and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition.
· It confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning, particularly for those learners who have an analytical learning style.
· It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come up, rather than having to anticipate them and prepare for them in advance.
Disadvantages of a deductive approach:
· Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-putting for some students, especially younger ones. They may not have sufficient metalanguage (i.e. language used to talk about language such as grammar terminology). Or they may not be able to understand the concepts involved.
· Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted, transmission-style classroom; teacher explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction.
· Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation, such as
demonstration.
· Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language is simply a  case of knowing the rules. 
What is a rule ?
In the Longman Activity Dictionary “rule” is defined as:
· a principle or order which guides behaviour, says how things are to be done etc, (prescriptive rule)
· the usual way that something happens ( descriptive rule). Descriptive rules are primarily concerned with generalisations about what speakers of the language actually do say than what they should do.
Pedagogic rules – they make sense to learners and provide them with the means and confidence to generate language with a reasonable chance of success. 
Pedagogic rules can be spit up into:
rules of form and rules of use.
Examples of prescriptive rules:
Do not use different to and never use different than. Always use different from.
Never use the passive when you can use the active.
Use shall for the first person and will for second and third persons.
Examples of descriptive rules:
You do not normally use the with proper nouns referring to people.
We use used to with the infinitive (used to do, used to smoke etc.) to say that something regularly happened in the past but no longer happens.

Example for rule of form:
To form the past simple of regular verbs, add –ed to the infinitive.
Example of a rule of use:
The simple past tense is used to indicate past actions or states.
Example: (from Walker and Elsworth Grammar practice for Intermediate Students, Longman, 1986)

Many of the pros and cons of a rule-driven approach hinge on the quality of the actual rule explanation. This in turn depends on how user-friendly the rule is. What makes a rule a good rule? Michael Swan, author of teachers' and students' grammars, offers the following criteria:
• Truth: Rules should be true. While truthfulness may need to be compromised in the interests of clarity and simplicity, the rule must bear some resemblance to the reality it is describing.
It is surprising how many incorrect explanations you find in TEFL books. A good example is
the distinction usually made between some and any, which goes something like:
Use some+plural countable/uncountable noun in affirmative sentences.
Use any+plural countable/uncountable noun in negative sentences and questions.
It still fails to explain:
Take any one you want.
I didn't like some of his books.
An explanation based on the difference in meaning between some and any might eliminate
many of these problems.
• Limitation: Rules should show clearly what the limits are on the use of a given form. 
For example, to say simply that we use will to talk about the future is of little use to the learner since it
doesn't show how will is different from other ways of talking about the future (e.g. going to).
• Clarity: Rules should be clear. Lack of clarity is often caused by ambiguity or obscure terminology.
For example: 'Use will for spontaneous decisions; use going to for premeditated decisions.' To which a student responded, 'All my decisions are premeditated'.
• Simplicity: Rules should be simple. Lack of simplicity is caused by overburdening the rule with subcategories and sub-sub-categories in order to cover all possible instances and account for all possible exceptions. There is a limit to the amount of exceptions a learner can remember.
• Familiarity: An explanation should try to make use of concepts already familiar to the learner. Few learners have specialised knowledge of grammar, although they may well be familiar with some basic terminology used to describe the grammar of their own language (e.g. conditional, infinitive, gerund). Most learners have a concept of tense (past, present, future), but will be less at home with concepts such as deontic and epistemic modality, for example.
• Relevance: A rule should answer only those questions that the student needs answered. These questions may vary according to the mother tongue of the learner. For example, Arabic speakers, who do not have an equivalent to the present perfect, may need a different treatment of this form than, say, French speakers, who have a similar structure to the English present perfect, but who use it slightly differently. 
A lot depends on the teacher’s presentation of the rule. An effective rule presentation will include the following features: 
it will be illustrated by an example
It will be short
Students’ understanding will be checked
Students will have an opportunity to personalize the rule.

The inductive approach – the rule-discovery path
What are the advantages of encouraging learners to work rules out for themselves?
· Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.
· The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth which, again, ensures greater memorability.
· Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients: they are therefore likely to be more attentive and more motivated.
· It is an approach which favours pattern-recognition and problem-solving abilities which suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like this kind of challenge.
· If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target language, learners get the opportunity for extra language practice.
· Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater self-reliance and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy. 
The disadvantages of an inductive approach include:
o The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into believing that rules are the objective of language learning, rather than a means.
o The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.
o Students may hypothesise the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application: this is especially a danger where there is no overt testing of their hypotheses, either through practice examples, or by eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.
o It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson. They need to select and organise the data carefully so as to guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule, while also ensuring the data is intelligible.
o However carefully organised the data is, many language areas such as aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.
o An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their personal learning style or their past learning experience (or both), would prefer simply to be told the rule.

Research findings into the relative benefits of deductive and inductive methods have been inconclusive. Short term gains for deductive learning have been found, and there is some evidence to suggest that some kinds of language items are better 'given than 'discovered'. Moreover, when surveyed, most learners tend to prefer deductive presentations of grammar.Nevertheless, once exposed to inductive approaches, there is often less resistance as the learners see the benefits of solving language problems themselves. Finally, the autonomy argument is not easily dismissed: the capacity to discern patterns and regularities in naturally occurring input would seem to be an invaluable tool for self-directed learning, and one, therefore, that might usefully be developed in the classroom.

The minimal pair approach is designed to overcome the lack of economy of the generative situation. By getting straight to the point, the minimal pairs presentation combines the best features of an explanation-driven approach and a discovery approach. It is also relatively easy to plan and to set up. In terms of efficacy , it relies heavily on the choice of sample sentences. More problematic still is the lack of context, which can sometimes lead students to the wrong conclusions, or, more frustratingly, to no conclusion at all.

Concordance, text analysis and concordancing software, is for anyone who needs to study texts closely or analyse language in depth. This is the most powerful and flexible software of its kind, with registered users in 52 countries.
With Concordance, you can
· make indexes and word lists
· count word frequencies
· compare different usages of a word
· analyse keywords
· find phrases and idioms
· publish to the web
· ...and much more
Concordance is being used in
· Language teaching and learning
· Data mining and data clean-up
· Literary and linguistic scholarship
· Translation and language engineering
· Corpus linguistics
· Natural language software development
· Lexicography
· Content analysis in many disciplines including accountancy, history, marketing, musicology, politics, geography, and media studies
A concordance derives its power for analysis from the fact that it allows us to see every place in a text where a particular word is used, and so to detect patterns of usage and, again, to marshal evidence for an argument. Since words express ideas, themes and motifs, a concordance is highly useful in detecting patterns of meaning as well. The concordance focuses on word-forms, however -- not on what may be meant but what is actually said. It is an empirical tool of textual research. (you can use Corpus Concordance Sampler free at
http://titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk/form.html)
Example: -ing form or infinitive after „remember
Francois de Menil, told me I remember feeling that Fred was like my
lower in saturated fats - even so, remember to limit the amount of these you
slipped me a two-shilling piece. I remember going bright red and handing it to
strong, strangely warm wind. I remember having experienced something
service team. [p] [p] Please remember to complete the Direct Debit
that of Tom's girl. Personally, I remember leaving the track team for the
expensive heating being wasted. Remember o turn your heating system off
personally. [p] I find it hard to remember to take my Pill every day and I'm
Street, London E1 9BS. [p] Remember to state the systems you own and
all the drinks you have this week. Remember to include all your drinks, not
sex that isn't available now. I can remember going to a dance hall and being
Take the casualty to hospital and remember to take with you any empty tablet
mark, take colour photos of them. Remember to include an object, such as a
Travel Points, it is important to remember to put your card through the swipe
And if you are boarding your dog, remember to ask your vet about protection

Functional-notional Approach
History
In 1972, the British linguist D.A. Wilkins published a document that proposed a radical shift away from using the traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary to describe language to an analysis of the communicative meanings that learners would need in order to express themselves and to understand effectively. This initial document was followed by his 1976 work Notional Syllabuses, which showed how language could be categorised on the basis of notions such as quantity, location and time, and functions such as making requests, making offers and apologising. Wilkins’ work was used by the Council of Europe in drawing up a communicative language syllabus, which specified the communicative functions a learner would need in order to communicate effectively at a given level of competence. At the end of the 1970s, the first course-books to be based on functional syllabuses began to appear. Typically, they would be organised on the basis of individual functions and the exponents needed to express these functions. For example, many course-books would begin with the function of ‘introducing oneself’, perhaps followed by the function of ‘making requests’, with typical exponents being ‘Can I ….?’, "Could you ….?’, "Is it alright if I ….?’ and so on. These would often be practised in the form of communicative exercises involving pair work, group work and role plays. It is interesting to compare this approach with a grammatical syllabus. In a typical grammatical syllabus, structures using the word ‘would’ tend to appear in later stages of the syllabus, as they are held to be relatively complex (eg "If I knew the answer, I would tell you"), whereas in a functional syllabus ‘would’ often appears at a very early stage due to its communicative significance in exponents such as ‘Would you like ….?’, which is extremely common and of great communicative value even to beginners. The need to apply a grammatical name or category to the structure is not considered important within the framework of a purely functional syllabus.
Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.(1983).
This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.
Explanation of specific terms:
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. A notion is a concept, or idea: it may be quite specific, in which case it is virtually the same as vocabulary (dog, house, for example); or it may be very general – time, size, emotion, movement – in which case it often overlaps with the concept of “topics”. A notion may be “time past”; this may include past tenses, phrases like a month ago, in 1990, last week, and utterances using temporal clauses beginning with when….., before…., after…. and so on;
A function is some kind of communicative act: it is the use of language to achieve a purpose, usually involving interaction at least between two people. Examples would be suggesting, promising, apologizing, greeting, inviting.
“Inviting” may include phrases like “Would you like to….? I suggest…., How about…? Please…

Task: Have a look at the items listed in the box below. Can you sort them into separate lists of notions and functions?	
Notions and functions	
location
obligation
advise
threat
apology
probability	offer
promise
the future
crime
the body
expressions of opinion
	request
spatial relations
food
instruction
remind	

A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:
A. The persons taking part in the speech act
B. The place where the conversation occurs
C. The time the speech act is taking place
D. The topic or activity that is being discussed
Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.
Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behaviour to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.
Functional Categories of Language
Mary Finocchiaro:The Functional-notional Approach: From Theory to Practice (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the functional categories under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative.
· Personal
Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth
· Interpersonal
Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:
•	greetings and leave takings
•	introducing people to others
•	identifying oneself to others
•	expressing joy at another’s success
•	expressing concern for other people’s welfare
•	extending and accepting invitations
•	refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements 
•	making appointments for meetings
•	breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time
•	apologizing
•	excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments
•	indicating agreement or disagreement
•	interrupting another speaker politely
•	changing an embarrassing subject
•	receiving visitors and paying visits to others
•	offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely
•	sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
•	making promises and committing oneself to some action
•	complimenting someone
•	making excuses
•	expressing and acknowledging gratitude
· Directive
Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:
•	making suggestions in which the speaker is included
•	making requests; making suggestions
•	refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternative
•	persuading someone to change his point of view
•	requesting and granting permission
•	asking for help and responding to a plea for help
•	forbidding someone to do something; issuing a command
•	giving and responding to instructions
•	warning someone
•	discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
•	establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions
•	asking for directions or instructions
· Referential
talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or 
•	reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future
•	identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community
•	asking for a description of someone or something
•	defining something or a language item or asking for a definition
•	explaining or asking for explanations of how something works
•	comparing or contrasting things
•	discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something
•	requesting or reporting facts about events or actions
•	evaluating the results of an action or event
· Imaginative
Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expression
•	discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
•	expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material
•	creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays
•	recombining familiar dialogs or passages creatively
•	suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories
•	solving problems or mysteries

Task: In the table shown below each column represents a different basis for selection of language: situation, function, vocabulary, etc. In each row one of them is filled in; can you fill in some suggestions for the others?	

Coordinating different language categories	
Situations 	Topics	Notions and
Functions
	Grammar	Vocabulary	
Getting to know
someone					
	Road accidents				
		Making requests			
			Future tense		
				farmer,
secretary, etc	

FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
People who study and use a language are mainly interested in how they can do things with language --- how they can make meanings, get attention to their problems and interests, influence their friends and colleagues and create a rich social life for themselves. They are only interested in the grammatical structure of the language as a means to getting things done. A grammar which puts together the patterns of the language and the things you can do with them is called a functional grammar.” [COBUILD, 1990]
Objective
The main objective of a functional grammar is to explain language in terms of what people do with it, how they use the language to live. It tries to do that by adopting more of a semantic and pragmatic orientation inside the grammar. It does not see semantics and pragmatics as extra levels of organization but sees them as integral to the organization of the grammar.
Criticism
· Order
Criticisms of functional approaches include the difficulty in deciding the order in which different functions should be presented. Is it more important to be able to complain or to apologise, for example? Another problem lies in the wide range of grammatical structures needed to manipulate basic functions at different levels of formality (for example, ‘Can I …..?’ as opposed to ‘Would you mind if I …..?"). In addition, although it is possible to identify hundreds of functions and micro-functions, there are probably no more than ten fundamental communicative functions that are expressed by a range of widely used exponents.
· no structures syllabus
There is also the apparently random nature of the language used, which may frustrate learners used to the more analytical and "building-block" approach that a grammatical syllabus can offer. Another apparent weakness is the question of what to do at higher levels. Is it simply a case of learning more complex exponents for basic functions or is one required to seek out ever more obscure functions (complaining sarcastically, for example)?
Advantages
On the positive side, however, there is little doubt that functional approaches have contributed a great deal to the overall store of language teaching methodology. Most new course-books contain some kind of functional syllabus alongside a focus on grammar and vocabulary, thus providing learners with communicatively useful expressions in tandem with a structured syllabus with a clear sense of progression. In addition, the focus on communication inherent
in the practice of functional exponents has contributed greatly to communicative language teaching in general. Finally, the idea that even beginners can be presented with exponents of high communicative value from the very start represents a radical shift from the kind of approach that began with the present simple of the verb ‘to be’ in all its forms and focused almost entirely on structure with little regard for actual communication in the target language.

Solutions to the tasks:
Functions are: offer, request, promise, advise, threat, instruction, apology, remind, expressioin of opinion. The rest are notions.
Coordinating different language categories	
Situations 	Topics	Notions and
Functions
	Grammar	Vocabulary	
Getting to know
someone	Tstes, hobbies 
	Inquiring, informing,
greeting
	Interrogative forms
Verb (e.g. enjoy + - ing	Swimming, sports, etc.	
Reporting an accident	Road accidents	Time past
Narrating
Describing
	Past tense	Road, car, drive, etc.	
Shopping 	Clothes	Making requests	Modals
Would, could, might
	Clothes,
Adjectives of colour,
size, e	
Planning a holiday 
	Travel,
accommodation
	Future time
Predicting
suggesting	Future tense	Train, plane, etc.
Hotel, camping	
Asking about or
describing a profession	Professions
Activities
Equipment
	Requesting information
Describing activity	Yes/no questions
Present tense	farmer,
secretary, etc	
Teaching Grammar in Situational Contexts - Using a generative situation
The generative Situation is a situation which the teacher sets up in the lesson in order to “generate” several example sentences of a structure.
Advantages:
A situational context permits presentation of a wide range of language items. The situation serves as a means of contextualising the language and this helps clarify its meaning. At the same time the generated examples provide the learners with data for induction of the rules of form. Students can be involved in the development of the presentation as well as in solving the grammar 'problem': this makes it less dry than a traditional grammar explanation. Moreover, the situation, if well chosen, is likely to be more memorable than a simple explanation. All these factors suggest that this approach rates high in terms of efficacy.
Disadvantages:
If students are in the wrong mind-set they are unlikely to do the kind of cognitive work involved in the induction of grammar rules. This kind of presentation also takes more time than an explanation. Time spent on presenting language is inevitably time spent at the expense of language practice, and it is arguable that
what most students need is not the presentation of rules but opportunities to practise them. Thus, the generative situation loses points in terms of its economy. And it also requires a resourceful teacher who not only is able to conjure up situations that generate several structurally identical sentences, but who has also the means (and the time) to prepare the necessary visual aids.
Example:
Teaching should have done using a generative situation
Step 1:
By means of a picture on the board (a drawing, photo, or picture cut from a magazine) the teacher introduces a character she calls Andy. She draws a rough map of Australia, placing next to it a picture of a four-wheel drive vehicle. She elicits ideas as to how these pictures are connected, establishing the situation that Andy has decided to drive across the Australian desert from the east to the west. She elicits the sort of preparations a person would need to make for such a journey. Students suggest, for example, that Andy would need a map, a spare wheel, lots of water, a travelling companion, food, a
board, and one or two ideas of her own:
To do this kind of journey, you should:
take a map
take water
not travel alone
advise the police
not travel in the wet season
Step 2:
The teacher then explains that Andy made no preparations. He didn't take a map, he didn't take water, he travelled alone, etc. She asks the students to imagine what happened. Using their ideas as well as her own, she constructs the following story:
Andy set off, got lost, got very thirsty, set off in search of help (leaving his vehicle behind), got trapped by sudden flood waters, etc. The police set out in search of him but couldn't find him because he had abandoned his vehicle and left no note. The teacher checks these facts by asking one or two students to recount them.
Step 3:
The teacher asks the class: Well, what do you think of Andy?, eliciting answers like He was stupid. Teacher: Why? At this point, students may venture sentences, like He must take a map. Having thus established the idea of disapproval of past actions, the teacher models the sentence: He should have
taken a map, repeating it two or three times. The students repeat the sentence in unison and then individually. The teacher reminds the students of the concept of disapproval by asking Did he take a map? (No). Was that a good idea? (No) So ...? The students respond: He should have taken a map.She then repeats this process using the example of travelling alone, eliciting, modelling, drilling, and concept-checking the sentence: He shouldn't have travelled alone.
Further prompting elicits example sentences, such as:
He should've taken water. He shouldn't have left his car.
At strategic points, the teacher recaps the sentences that have been generated, using the words on the board as prompts. So far, nothing has been written on the board.
Step 4:
The teacher then clears the board and writes up the following table:
He 	should have	 taken water.
	shouldn’t have 	traveled alone.
She asks students, working in pairs, to add further sentences about tze situation t the table. Individual students read sentences aloud from the table.
Step 5:
The teacher then asks students to imagine the dialogue when the police finally find Andy. She writes the following exchange on the board:
Police: 	You should have taken a map.
Andy: 	I know I should. I didn’t think.
Students, working in pairs, continue writing the dialogue along the same lines, and then practice it aloud, taking it in turns to be the police officer and Andy.

Situation or Context 	Points of Grammar	
Follow a recipe or instructions from a boxed cake mix to bake a cake.	Imperative verb form
Present continuous tense
	
Give directions to another person to get to a store, the post office, or a bank using a map.	Present tense
Non-referential it
	
Discuss plans for a class field trip to the zoo. Future tense	If-clauses
Conditional tense	
Describe a past vacation, weekend, etc. 
	Simple past tense
Question formation
Forms of verb to do
Word order in negation	
Role play a shopping trip to buy a gift for a family member or friend.
	May, might
Collective nouns and quantifiers (any,
some, several, etc.)	
Answer information questions: Name,
address, phone number, etc.	Present tense of verb to be
Possessive adjectives	
Tell someone how to find an object in your kitchen.	Locative prepositions
Modal verbs (can, may, should)	
Fill out a medical history form. Then role play a medical interview on a visit with a new doctor.	Present perfect tense
Present perfect progressive
	
Make a daily weather report	Forms of verb to be
Idiomatic expressions	

Teaching Grammar through texts
If learners are to achieve a functional command of a second language, they will need to be able to understand and produce not just isolated sentences, but whole texts in that language. Language is context-sentitive; which is to say that an utterance becomes fully intelligible only when it is placed in its context. Coursebook texts tend to be specially tailored for ease of understanding and so as to display specific features of grammar. This often gives them a slightly unreal air, as in this example:
(Contrasting Present Progressive – “Going to” Future)
This is Mr West. He has a bag in his left hand. Where is he standing? He is standing at the door of his house. What is Mr West going to do? He is going to put his hand into his pocket. He is going to take a key out of his pocket. He is
going to put the key into the lock.(from Hornby, A.S. Oxford Progressive English Course, Oxford University Press, 1954)
Authentic texts or classroom texts?
Advocates of authentic texts argue that not only are such specially written EFL texts uninteresting - and therefore unmotivating - but they misrepresent the way the language is used in real-life contexts. On the other hand, the problems associated with authentic texts cannot be wished away, either, as any teacher who has attempted to use a dense newspaper article with low level students will have discovered. The linguistic load of unfamiliar vocabulary and syntactic complexity can make such texts impenetrable, and ultimately very demotivating.

A compromise position is to take authentic texts, and to simplify them in ways which retain their genuine flavour. This is the approach generally adopted by coursebook writers nowadays. Another alternative is to write classroom texts, but to make them more engaging than the example quoted above. In fact, with only the slightest change, the text about Mr West
could be made somewhat more attention-grabbing:
This is Mr West. He has a bag in his left hand. Where is he standing? He is standing at the door of his house. What is Mr West going to do? He is going to put his hand into his pocket. He is going to take a gun out of his pocket. He is going to point the gun at...
The implications of this context-sensitive view of language on grammar teaching are that:
• Grammar is best taught and practised in context.
• This means using whole texts as contexts for grammar teaching.
Advantages of using texts:
o They provide co-textual information, allowing learners to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar grammatical items from the co-text.
o If the texts are authentic they can show how the item is used in real communication. 
o As well as grammar input, texts provide vocabulary input, skills practice, and exposure to features of text organisation.
o Their use in the classroom is good preparation for independent study.
o If the texts come from the students themselves, they may be more engaging and their language features therefore more memorable.
Disadvantages
o The difficulty of the text, especially an authentic one, may mean that some of the above advantages are lost.
o The alternative - to use simplified texts - may give a misleading impression as to how the language item is naturally used, again defeating the purpose of using texts.
o Not all texts will be of equal interest to students.
o Students who want quick answers to simple questions may consider the use of texts to
be the 'scenic route' to language awareness, and would prefer a quicker, more direct route instead.
No single method of grammar presentation is going to be appropriate for all grammar items, nor for all learners, nor for all learning contexts. A lot will also depend on the kind of practice opportunities that the teacher provides. In the next chapter we will look at a range of practice types.

Teaching Grammar through stories
Everyone loves a story. Stories can be used for both eliciting and illustrating grammar points. The former employs inductive reasoning, while the latter requires deductive thought, and it is useful to include both approaches in lesson planning. In addition, a well-told story is the perfect context for a structure-discourse match, but the technique can also be used effectively for a structure-social factor match. Storytelling is one of these extremely versatile techniques,
and once you get the hang of it, it can be a convenient and natural grammar teaching tool. You may even find that it is the technique that holds students' attention best, as well as the one they enjoy most.

Grammar points can be contexualized in stories that are absorbing and just plain fun if they are selected with the interest of the class in mind, are told with a high degree of energy, and involve the students. Students can help create stories and impersonate characters in them. Students will certainly appreciate and respond to your efforts to include them in the storytelling process, but they will also enjoy learning about you through your stories. Stories should last from one to five minutes, and the more exaggerated and bizarre they are, the more
likely students will remember the teaching points they illustrate. 

Storytelling is traditional in almost all cultures. We can tap into that tradition for a very portable resource and a convenient and flexible technique for teaching any phase of a grammar lesson. A story provides a realistic context for presenting grammar points and holds and focuses students’ attention in a way that no other technique can. Although some teachers are better at telling stories than others, almost any of us can tell stories with energy and interest. Students naturally like to listen to stories, and most are remembered long after the lesson is over.

Teaching grammar through songs and rhymes
Songs
Since the meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. Songs offer a change from routine classroom activities. They are precious resources to develop students abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. They can also be used to teach a variety of language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, and adverbs. Learning English through songs also provides a non-threatening atmosphere for students, who usually are tense when speaking English in a formal classroom setting.

Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they are motivating. Prosodic features of the language such as stress, rhythm, intonation are presented through songs, thus through using them the language which is cut up into a series of structural points becomes a whole again.
There are many advantages of using songs in the classroom. Through using contemporary popular songs, which are already familiar to teenagers, the teacher can meet the challenges of the teenage needs in the classroom. Since songs are highly memorable and motivating, in many forms they may constitute a powerful subculture with their own rituals. Furthermore, through using traditional folk songs the base of the learners knowledge of the target culture
can be broadened.

In consequence, if selected properly and adopted carefully, a teacher should benefit from songs in all phases of teaching grammar. Songs may both be used for the presentation or the practice phase of the grammar lesson. They may encourage extensive and intensive listening, and inspire creativity and use of imagination in a relaxed classroom atmosphere. While selecting a song the teacher should take the age, interests of the learners and the language being used in the song into consideration. To enhance learner commitment, it is also
beneficial to allow learners to take part in the selection of the songs.
Teaching Procedure
There are various ways of using songs in the classroom. The level of the students, the interests and the age of the learners, the grammar point to be studied, and the song itself have determinant roles on the procedure. Apart from them, it mainly depends on the creativity of the teacher.
At the primary level of singing the song, the prosodic features of the language is emphasized. At the higher levels, where the practice of grammar points is at the foreground, songs can be used with several techniques. Some examples of these techniques are:
· Gap fills or close texts
· Focus questions
· True-false statements
· Put these lines into the correct sequence
· Dictation
· Add a final verse
· Circle the antonyms/synonyms of the given words
· Discuss
A teacher's selection of a technique or a set of techniques should be based on his or her objectives for the classroom. After deciding the grammar point to be studied, and the song and the techniques to be used, the teacher should prepare an effective lesson plan. Since songs are listening activities, it is advisable to present them as a listening lesson, but of course it is necessary to integrate all the skills in the process in order to achieve successful teaching.

When regarding a lesson plan, as a pre-listening activity, the theme, the title, or the history of the song can be discussed. By directing the students toward specific areas, problem vocabulary items can be picked up in advance. Before listening to the song, it is also beneficial to let the students know which grammar points should be studied. At this stage, pictures may also be used to introduce the theme of the song. In the listening stage, some of the techniques listed above can be used, but among them gap filling is the most widely used technique. Through such gaps, the vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation are highlighted.

This stage can be developed by the teacher according to the needs of the students and the grammar point to be studied. In the follow-up, integrated skills can be used to complete the overall course structure. Since many songs are on themes for which it is easy to find related reading texts, it may lead the learner to read a text about the singer or the theme. Besides, many songs give a chance for a written reaction of some kind. Opinion questions may lead the learner to write about his own thoughts or reflections. Some songs deal with a theme that can be re-exploited through role plays. Acting may add enthusiasm to the learning process. Finally, some songs deal with themes, which can lead to guided discussion. By leading the students into a discussion, the grammar point could be practiced orally and, in a way, naturally.

Exploitation of songs for grammatical structures can be illustrated through several examples. For present tense 'Let It Be' by the Beatles, for past tense 'Yesterday' by the Beatles, for present progressive 'Sailing' by Rod Stewart, for present perfect 'Nothing Compares to You' by Sinead Occonor, for past perfect 'Last Night I Had...' by Simon and Garfunkel, for modals 'Blowing in the Wind' by Bob Dylan, and for conditionals 'El Condor Pasa' by Simon and Garfunkel can be used. However, it should be kept in mind that songs, which provide frequent repetitions, or tell a story, or provide comments about life, or introduce cultural themes are the effective ones, since they provide authentic and meaningful material.

Poems
Poems, like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson effectively. Since poetry is often spoken, repeated, dealt with, and considered, it acts as an effective tool for practicing a specific grammatical structure. Through repeating and considering the poem, the grammatical structures become more deeply internalized. Thus, poetry not only provides a rewarding resource for structured practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for review. If a poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good poem, it engages the eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously while also stimulating and moving us; this polymorphic effect makes poetry easier to memorize than other things for many students.
Like songs, poems exaggerate the rhythmic nature of the language. Thus it is an important aspect to be taught, since English is a syllable timed language with stressed syllables being spoken at roughly equal time pauses, even in everyday speech. Similar to songs, poems have an enormous linguistic value as they provide authenticity and cultural views. A poem's capacity to comfort the reader or the listener also increases its effectiveness as a teaching resource. Once a poem or song has been learned, they stay in the minds of the students for the rest of their lives, with all the rhythms, grammatical features and vocabulary.
Poems may bring the use of creativity and the rhythm into the language classroom, though they may also bring some difficulties. Poems are not constructed in a simple way and syntactically they are at a higher level than prose, thus it might be very difficult for a foreign language learner to comprehend them completely.
There are three main barriers for literature including poetry. They are linguistic, cultural, and intellectual barriers. Linguistic difficulties are the problems caused by the syntax or the lexicon of the poem. Cultural difficulties include imagery, tone, and allusion. At the intellectual level, the students should be intellectual and mature enough to understand the theme of the poem. These difficulties could be easily removed if the teacher provides a poem which is syntactically and thematically appropriate to the level, age and the interests of the students. Thus, by removing or minimizing the potential problems, poetry can provide an
enormously rich, enjoyable and authentic context for foreign language learners.

In the selection of a poem, the teacher should first consider the grammatical structure to be presented, practiced, or reviewed, then the level and the age of the students, next the theme and the length of the poem and its appropriateness to the classroom objectives. It is advisable to select a poem from 20th century poets. As older poems often provide a more difficult lexicon and syntax, and as they reflect some old-fashioned ideas, it is more convenient to use contemporary poems than older ones. Poems, which reflect cultural themes, universal features, humanistic values, or emotional aspects, will be more relevant to the foreign language learners. Finally, through taking the classroom objectives into consideration, a teacher should effectively benefit from poems as teaching aids.
Teaching Procedure
At the teaching stage of a poem, it is not advisable to talk about the meaning of the poem in advance. Since they offer a reading and listening activity, poems could be presented through a reading plan. At the pre-reading stage, students might be motivated through some enthusiastic talks about poetry or the poet. Some necessary vocabulary can also be handled at this stage. At the reading stage, in order to create images and stress the prosodic features, the teacher
may want the students to close their eyes while he/she is reading the poem. After the poem has been read at least twice, it is better to elicit the primary responses of the students about the poem. Next, after distributing the poem to students, students may be asked to read it either loudly or silently. In order to practice the determined grammar point, students may be asked to paraphrase the poem. Through transforming the verse into prose students get acquainted
with the structure. 

After easing the grammar and understanding the vocabulary, students get an idea about the theme of the poem. Reading the paraphrased poem reinforces the grammatical structure under consideration. Asking questions about context may follow the reading. Through asking Whquestions, providing additional information about the culture, and asking students to share their experience with the subject matter, the cultural content of the poem becomes more real and vivid. Words, pictures, and shared experiences can eliminate the gap that is created by different cultures, as no one can deny that poems cannot always evoke the same sounds, sights, smells, and associations for both native speakers and foreign language learners. After discussing the surface content of the poem, students may again asked to close their eyes and visualize the poem while listening to it.

As a follow-up activity a discussion may be held. After reviewing the plot of the poem and providing adequate artful questions, the students will eventually discover the deeper meaning of the poem. As being a facilitator, a teacher should always avoid telling the meaning. After each student grasps his or her own meaning, it is proper to discuss the depth of the poem. In this procedure, the teacher's aim is to support the students in their attempts to understand the
poem and make it relevant to their lives. Once they have understood it and perceived its relevance, they will have no objection to practicing the poem or even memorizing it, for it will have become special for them. At the follow-up stage, providing the determined structure, students may also be asked to write a poem about anything they want. In such a procedure the four skills are effectively integrated to practice or present any grammar point. 

Since every class is different, teachers should creativity determine the teaching procedure. It is not advisable to apply one procedure too strictly. A teacher should adopt the activities according to the needs of the learners. However, it might not be very useful to use poems for young students or for beginners. Instead of poems, using nursery rhymes or songs would be more helpful since they provide more joyful and easier contexts. From pre-intermediate to advanced levels, it is really beneficial to use either songs or poems. Several poems can be adopted from contemporary poem books. The poems of the W.H. Auden, Robert Frost, Stanley Kunitz, Delmore Schwartz, W.D. Snodgrass, Theodore Roethke, Gary Snyder, Richard Wilbur, and Robert Lowell, etc. are suggested for the language teachers who want to use poems in their grammar lessons.

Some rules for teaching grammar
What conclusions are to be drawn about the teaching of grammar? Here are some rules of thumb:
• The Rule of Context:
Teach grammar in context. If you have to take an item out of context in order to draw attention to it, ensure that it is re-contextualized as soon as possible. Similarly, teach grammatical forms in association with their meanings. The choice of one grammatical form over another is always determined by the meaning the speaker or writer wishes to convey.
• The Rule of Use:
Teach grammar in order to facilitate the learners' comprehension and production of real language, rather than as an end in itself. Always provide opportunities for learners to put the grammar to some communicative use.
• The Rule of Economy:
To fulfill the rule of use, be economical. This means economising on presentation time in order to provide maximum practice time. With grammar, a little can go a long way.
• The Rule of Relevance:
Teach only the grammar that students have problems with. This means, start off by finding out what they already know. And don't assume that the grammar of English is a wholly different system from the learner's mother tongue. Exploit the common ground.
• The Rule of Nurture:
Teaching doesn't necessarily cause learning - not in any direct way. Instead of teaching grammar, therefore, try to provide the right conditions for grammar learning.

• The Rule of Appropriacy:
Interpret all the above rules according to the level, needs, interests, expectations and learning styles of the students. This may mean giving a lot of prominence to grammar, or it may mean never actually teaching grammar at all - in any up-front way. But either way, it is your responsibility as a teacher to know your grammar inside out.

Some conditions
The Rule of Nurture argues for providing the conditions for grammar learning. What are these conditions? If the answer to this much disputed question could be reduced to a handful of essentials, they would probably be these:
• The input learners get: 
will it be presented in such a way that the learners are likely to engage with it, thus ensuring a reasonable chance of it becoming intake?
• Their output:
will it be of sufficient quantity and/or quality to ensure that they have opportunities to develop both accuracy and fluency?
• The feedback they get:
will it be of the type and quantity to ensure that some of their attention is directed at form?
• Their motivation: will the content and design of the lesson be such that learners are motivated to attend to the input, produce optimal output, and take account of the feedback?
Here are six teacher “confessions”. Which rule did the teacher break, in each case?
1. I explained it and drilled it - and still they made mistakes. So I explained it and drilled it again.
2. I taught my business class the present perfect continuous using a fairy tale.
3. I presented the rules of adverb order, and then we did some exercises in the book. Tomorrow I'm going to do the second conditional.
4. They don't have any problems with the past tense, but I'm going to teach it again because it's in the book.
5. I gave them five sentences in different tenses and asked them to work out the difference. Then we did some sentence gap-fill exercises.
6. The presentation took about 40 minutes. That left me ten minutes for the role play.

2.	Latihan
a. Answer these following questions correctly!
1. In your opinion, What is grammar?
2. 	What teaching techniqu will you choose to teach grammar to your class? Explain the reasons!
3.	What are your difficulties in teaching grammar? How do you solve the problems?
4. Give me your teaching plan to teach grammar in your class!
b. Assignment Instructions
To answer questions given, students should read materials above. Students also should answer the questions with their own words. Thus it may reflect their undertanding about the materials.

3.	Summary
. Since every class is different, teachers should creativity determine the teaching procedure. It is not advisable to apply one procedure too strictly. A teacher should adopt the activities according to the needs of the learners. However, it might not be very useful to use poems for young students or for beginners. Instead of poems, using nursery rhymes or songs would be more helpful since they provide more joyful and easier contexts.
4.	Tes Formatif
Choose the right answer from questions below!
1.	What are main barries in using literature in learning language? 
	a. linguistic, cultural, and social barriers
	b. linguistic, cultural, and intellectual barriers.
	c. Intellectual and social barries
	d. Cultural and social barries

2.	What can a story provide?  
	a. grammatical incorrectness
	b. unrealistics context
	c. fabricated context
	d. realistics context

3.	How should you teach grammatical forms?
	a. teach grammatical forms related to students needs
	b. close observation and detailed questioning
	c. teach grammatical forms in association with their meanings
	d. close observation and random undetail question
4.	What are the main objectives of a functional grammar? 
	a. to explain language in terms of what people do with it, how they use the language to live
	b. to explain what aspects being explained by languages only
	c. to analyze how language being used only  
	d. by rhythm, rhyme and repetition 

5. 	What is one of main functions in using concordance? 
	a.in detecting context only
	b. weak connections between sensory development and academic success
	c. in detecting monotonous forms of meaning   
	d. in detecting patterns of meaning
.
5.	Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut
Please match your answers above with answer key of formative test 1 which is located in the end of the module. Measure your topic mastery of learning activity 1 with formula given below:
Level of mastery= (total of right answers: 5) x 100%
Vey good	=	90-100%
Good	=	80 - 89%
Fair	= 70 – 79%
Poor	=	0 – 69 %
If level of mastery of the topic is more than 80%, you can continue to learning activity 2 . If level of mastery is less than 80% you need to re-do learning activity 1 especially from you have not understood part.

E.	Kegiatan Belajar 2

1.	Uraian dan contoh 
text
2.	Latihan
text
3.	Rangkuman
text
4.	Tes Formatif
text
5.	Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut
text 

F.	Kegiatan Belajar 3

1.	Uraian dan contoh 
text
2.	Latihan
text
3.	Rangkuman
text
4.	Tes Formatif
text 
5.	Umpan Balik dan Tindak Lanjut
text 

G.	Kunci Jawaban

1.	Tes formatif 1
1. b
2. d
3. c
4. a
5. d

2.	Tes formatif 2
text
3.	Tes formatif 3
text

H.	Daftar Pustaka

Poole, C., Miller, S.A., and Church E.B. (2014). Ages & stages: How children develop a sense of time. Retrieved from http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/ages-stages-how-children-use-magicalthinking
Burton, R. (2011). The experience of time in the very young. Retrieved from http://www.phenomenologyonline.com/sources/textorium/burton-rod-the-experience-of-time-inthe-very-young/
Play
Brown, S. (2009). Play: How it shapes the brain, opens the imagination, and invigorates the soul. Avery: New York.
Ackerman, D. (1999). Deep play. New York: Vintage Books.
NAEYC (1996) Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Position statement. Washington, D.C: National Association for the Education ofYoung Children.
Belonging
Bower, N. M. (2013) Adventure, play, peace: Insights and activities for social-emotional learning and community building with young children. Bethany, OK: Wood N Barnes Publishing.
Howard, S. (2006). “What is Waldorf Early Childhood Education?” Gateways Fall/Winter. Waldorf Early Childhood Education Association.
Wonder
Gonya, J. Early childhood building blocks: Turning curiosity into scientific inquiry, Resources for early childhood, an online resource for Ohio educators. Retrieved from http://rec.ohiorc.org/orc_documents/orc/recv2/briefs/pdf/0008.pdf
Chouinard MM. (2007). Children's questions: a mechanism for cognitive development. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev, 72(1):vii-ix, 1-112; discussion 113-26.
Bodies First
Flanagan, J. (2009). Sensory processing disorder. Pediatric News. Retrieved from http://www.kennedykrieger.org/sites/kki2.com/files/08-09.pdf
Montessori, M. (1948). The discovery of the child. Madras: Kalkshetra Publications Press.
Independence and Mastery
Copple, C., and S. Bredekamp, eds. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving birth through 8. Washington: NAEYC.
Erikson, Erik H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International Universities Press.
Natural World
Sobel, D. (1996). Beyond ecophobia : Reclaiming the heart in nature education. Great Barrington, MA: Orion Society.
Louv, R. (2005). Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature-deficit disorder. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books Of Chapel Hill.
Miller, S. and Pennycuff, L. (2008). The power of story: Using storytelling to improve literacy learning. Journal of Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives in Education. 1(1), 36 – 43.
Hamilton, M. and Weiss. M. (2005). Children tell stories: Teaching and using storytelling in the classroom. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen Publishers.
Egan, K. (1989). Teaching as storytelling. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., and Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Identity and Culture
Brooker, L. and M. Woodhead, M. eds. (2008). Developing positive identities: Diversity and young children. Early Childhood in Focus (3). Milton Keynes, U.K.: The Open University.
Linda Espinosa (2010). Getting it RIGHT for young children from diverse backgrounds: Applying research to improve practice. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Parke, R. D., & Gauvain, M. (2009). Gender roles and gender differences. Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2009. 475-503.
NAEYC (1995). Position statement on school readiness. Washington, D.C.: National Association for theEducation of Young Children.
Expression
Heard, G. and McDonough (2009). A place for wonder: Reading and writing nonfiction in the primary grades. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Edwards, C. P. and Willis, L. M. (2000). Integrating visual and verbal literacies in the early childhood classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal. 27(4), 259-265.
Edwards, C.P., Gandini, L., and Forman, G. (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach advanced reflections. Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation.